Our Polyether Ether Ketone PEEK Injection Molding Services

Elevate high-performance component manufacturing with our PEEK Injection Molding services—where the exceptional strength of POLYETER ETHETHETHE (un livello superiore termoplastico ad alte prestazioni) Incontra l'ingegneria di precisione. From medical implants to aerospace brackets, we deliver parts that thrive in extreme temperatures, sostanze chimiche aggressive, and critical applications, backed by strict compliance with Iso 10993 E ASTM D638 standard.

polyether ether ketone peek injection molding
polyether ether ketone peek injection molding

Definizione: Understanding PEEK Injection Molding

PEEK Injection Molding is the process of shaping POLYETER ETHETHETHE (SBIRCIARE)—a semicrystalline, high-performance thermoplastic—into custom components via injection molding. PEEK stands out as a semicrystalline polymer with unparalleled thermal, meccanico, e resistenza chimica, making it the material of choice for industries where failure is not an option. Below is a breakdown of key definitions, Specifiche, and comparisons to similar polymers:

Core Specifications & Standards​

Specification Category​DettagliRelevant Standard​Scopo
Resistenza termicaContinuous use temperature: 240 ° C.; Punto di fusione: 343 ° C.ASTM D648​Ensures performance in high-heat environments (PER ESEMPIO., Baie motore, forni industriali)
Resistenza meccanicaResistenza alla trazione: 90–100 MPA; Modulo di flessione: 3.6–4.1 GPa​ASTM D638​Guarantees structural integrity for load-bearing parts (PER ESEMPIO., marcia, parentesi)
BiocompatibilitàNon tossico, non-immunogenic, tissue-compatible​ISO 10993​Enables use in medical implants (PER ESEMPIO., gabbie spinali, dental caps)
Flame Resistance​Self-extinguishing without additives​Ul 94 V-0Meets safety requirements for electronics and aerospace parts​

PEEK vs. Similar High-Performance Polymers​

PolimeroKey Difference from PEEK​Caso d'uso idealeLimitation vs. Sbirciare
PEK (Polyether Ketone)Lower melting point (334 ° C.) but less impact resistance​Valvole industriali (moderate heat)Cannot withstand continuous 240 °C exposure​
Lardo (Polyether Ketone Ketone)Higher crystallinity but higher cost (+30% contro. SBIRCIARE)Parti strutturali aerospaziali (extreme load)Less cost-effective for high-volume production​
Ptfe (Politetrafluoroetilene)Better chemical resistance but lower strength​Pompe chimiche (Fluidi corrosivi)Poor dimensional stability under load​

Insomma, PEEK Injection Molding leverages the polymer’s balanced properties—strength, Resistenza al calore, and biocompatibility—to solve challenges that conventional plastics (and even metals) cannot address. Nostro service scope covers everything from material selection (per PEEK grade specs) to final part validation.

Le nostre capacità: Mastering High-Performance PEEK Molding

Alla tecnologia Yigu, Nostro PEEK Injection Molding capabilities are engineered to unlock the full potential of this advanced material. We invest in specialized equipment and expertise to handle PEEK’s unique processing requirements (alta temperatura, controllo preciso). Below is a detailed overview of our core capabilities:

Key Capabilities & Applicazioni

CapacitàDescrizioneSpecifiche tecnicheIdeale per
High-Temperature MoldingMolding machines with heated barrels capable of reaching 400 ° C+ (critical for melting PEEK’s high-melt viscosity)Barrel temp range: 360–420 °C; Pressione di iniezione: 1500–2000 bar​Componenti aerospaziali (exposed to engine heat)
Clean-Room ISO 7 ProduzioneClasse 7 (10,000-class) cleanrooms for contamination-sensitive parts​Particle count: <10,000 particles/ft³ (≥0.5 μm)Impianti medici, semiconductor wafer clamps​
Micro-Molding PEEKPrecision machines for ultra-small parts with tight tolerances​Minimum part size: 0.5 mm; Tolleranza: ± 0,005 mmConnettori elettronici, micro-valves​
Thick-Section MoldingSpecialized cooling and curing controls to prevent warping in thick parts​Maximum section thickness: 25 mm; Crystallinity control: 30–45%​Olio & gas seals, heavy-duty gears​
Multi-Cavity ToolsCustom molds with 2–16 cavities for high-volume production​Riduzione del tempo di ciclo: 30–40% contro. single-cavity​Food processing conveyors, Distribuzione automobilistica
In-House Mold-Flow AnalysisSimulation software to optimize mold design (Posizionamento del gate, runner layout)Reduces trial runs by 50%; Minimizes material waste​Parti complesse (PER ESEMPIO., turbine bushings, componenti impiantabili)
DFM SupportDesign for Manufacturability reviews to refine part geometry for PEEK molding​Adds draft angles, optimizes wall thickness, reduces undercuts​Sviluppo di nuovi prodotti (NPD) projects​
Lot Traceability (FDA/UDI)Full traceability from raw material to finished part​Tracks batch numbers, date di produzione, operator IDs; Compliant with FDA UDI requirements​Dispositivi medici, pharmaceutical equipment​

Nostro rapid tooling change capacità (Sotto 4 ore) also ensures flexibility—whether you need small-batch prototypes or large-volume production runs, we adapt quickly without sacrificing quality.

Processo: Step-by-Step PEEK Injection Molding

PEEK’s unique properties require a highly controlled injection molding process—even minor deviations in temperature or pressure can compromise part quality. Below is our optimized PEEK molding cycle, designed to maximize consistency and performance:

Fare un passo 1: Preparazione del materiale (Asciugatura)

PEEK is hygroscopic (Assorbe l'umidità), which causes bubbling and voids in finished parts. We dry PEEK pellets in a dehumidifying dryer at 150 ° C per 4 ore (critical for maintaining material integrity). For medical-grade PEEK, we use nitrogen-purged dryers to prevent contamination.​

Fare un passo 2: Design dello stampo & Preparation​

  • Gate & Runner Design: We use hot runners (instead of cold runners) to minimize PEEK waste (hot runners keep material molten, reducing scrap by 25–30%). Gates are placed to avoid shear stress (PEEK is sensitive to excessive shear, which degrades its strength).
  • Controllo della temperatura della muffa: Molds are heated to 150–200 ° C. (via oil or electric heaters) to promote uniform crystallization—this ensures stabilità dimensionale and prevents warping. Per parti spesse, we use gradient heating (warmer at the core, cooler at the surface).

Fare un passo 3: Injection Molding Machine Setup​

  • High-Heat Barrel Settings: Barrel zones are set to a temperature gradient (feed zone: 360 ° C.; melt zone: 380–400 ° C.; ugello: 390–410 °C) to melt PEEK without thermal degradation.​
  • Inert-Gas Venting: We purge the mold cavity with nitrogen during injection to remove air (PEEK’s high viscosity traps air easily, leading to defects). This step is mandatory for parts like semiconductor clamps (where even tiny voids cause failure).

Fare un passo 4: Iniezione & Packing​

  • Velocità di iniezione: Slow to moderate (50–100 mm/s) to control shear (excessive shear reduces PEEK’s tensile strength by 10–15%).
  • Packing Pressure: 80–90% of injection pressure, held for 10–20 seconds to compensate for shrinkage (PEEK shrinks 1.5–2.5% during cooling).

Fare un passo 5: Raffreddamento & Demolding

Il tempo di raffreddamento varia a seconda dello spessore della parte (10 seconds for thin parts, 60 seconds for thick sections). We use controlled cooling to maintain crystallinity (bersaglio: 35–40% for most applications; higher for structural parts, lower for flexible components). Demolding is done with gentle ejectors to avoid scratching (critico per gli impianti medici).

Fare un passo 6: Post-elaborazione & Controllo di qualità

  • Ricottura: Parts are heated to 180–200 °C for 1–2 hours, Quindi si è raffreddato lentamente (5 ° C/min) to relieve internal stresses. This step improves dimensional stability by 20–25%.​
  • SPC Monitoring: We use Statistical Process Control (Spc) to track key parameters (temperatura, pressione, Tempo del ciclo) in tempo reale. Any deviation beyond ±2% triggers an alert, Garantire una qualità costante.

Ispezione: Parts undergo dimensional testing (CMM), mechanical testing (tensile strength per ASTM D638), e ispezione visiva (for defects like flash or voids).

Materiali: Choosing the Right PEEK Grade for Your Project

PEEK is available in various grades, each formulated to enhance specific properties (forza, resistenza all'usura, biocompatibilità). The right grade depends on your application’s unique demands. Below is a guide to the most common PEEK grades we use:

Popular PEEK Grades & Their Uses​

PEEK Grade​Manufacturer​Proprietà chiaveApplicazione ideale
Victrex 450GVictrex PLC​Uso generale; Balanced strength and processability​Aerospace clips, automotive gears​
Solvay Ketaspire KT-820 CF30Solvay​30% carbon-filled; High stiffness and wear resistance​Cuscinetti industriali, pump shafts​
Evonik Vestakeep 2000 GEvonik​30% pieno di vetro; Superior tensile strength (110 MPA)Olio & gas seals, staffe strutturali
Victrex PEEK-OPTIMAVictrex PLC​Medical-grade; Implantable, USP Class VI compliant​Impianti spinali, dental healing caps​
Solvay Ketaspire KT-220Solvay​Cuscinetto; Basso coefficiente di attrito (0.2)Food processing conveyors, sliding gears​
Evonik Vestakeep MEDEvonik​FDA food-contact; Steam-sterilizable​Attrezzatura farmaceutica, lab instruments​

Grade Selection Checklist​

  1. Temperature Requirement: If parts face >240 °C (PER ESEMPIO., Componenti del motore), choose glass/carbon-filled grades (they retain strength at high heat).
  1. Biocompatibilità: For medical use, selezionare Implantable PEEK-OPTIMA (incontra ISO 10993) or FDA food-contact grades (PER ESEMPIO., Vestakeep MED).
  1. Resistenza all'usura: Per parti in movimento (PER ESEMPIO., cuscinetti), pick carbon-filled or bearing-grade PEEK (PER ESEMPIO., Ketaspire KT-220).
  1. Flame Safety: Per l'elettronica, ensure the grade meets Ul 94 V-0 (all standard PEEK grades qualify).

We maintain global supply contracts with Victrex, Solvay, and Evonik, ensuring consistent access to high-quality PEEK—even for high-volume orders.

Trattamento superficiale: Migliorare le prestazioni della parte di sbirciatina

PEEK’s inherent properties are exceptional, Ma Trattamento superficiale can further expand its capabilities—whether you need better adhesion, biocompatibilità, o usura resistenza. Below are the most effective surface treatments for PEEK parts:

Trattamento superficialeProcessoVantaggio chiaveApplicazione ideale
Plasma TreatmentExposing parts to low-temperature plasma (argon/oxygen) to activate surface molecules​Improves adhesion (for coatings or bonding) by 300–400%​Medical devices needing drug coatings​
Chromic Acid EtchingImmersing parts in chromic acid solution to create micro-roughness​Enhances bone integration for implants​Orthopedic spinal cages​
Ti-Coating PEEKDepositing a thin titanium layer via PVD (Deposizione di vapore fisico)Boosts wear resistance by 5x; Adds radiopacity (visible on X-rays)Impianti dentali, Strumenti chirurgici
Laser TexturingUsing a fiber laser to create precise surface patterns (PER ESEMPIO., scanalature, dots)Riduce l'attrito; Improves grip​Marcia, sliding components​
Lucidare (Ra <0.1 µm)Mechanical buffing with diamond paste to achieve a mirror finish​Minimizes bacterial adhesion; Improves aesthetics​Impianti medici, parti di semiconduttore
PVD/CVD CoatingsApplying hard coatings (PER ESEMPIO., Carburo di tungsteno) via PVD/CVD​Resists scratches and chemical attack​Olio & gas down-hole parts, parentesi aerospaziali
Bondable PrimerApplying a polyurethane primer to PEEK surfaces​Enables strong bonding to metals/plastics​Multi-material assemblies (PER ESEMPIO., Alloggi elettronici)
Sterilization-Compatible FinishHeat-curing a silicone-based coating​Resiste 1,000+ cicli di autoclave (134 ° C., 3 sbarra)Reusable medical instruments​

Per esempio, Usiamo Ti-coating PEEK for dental implants to make them visible on X-rays (PEEK is radiolucent) and improve long-term stability in the jawbone. For semiconductor parts, lucidare (Ra <0.1 µm) ensures no particle buildup on critical surfaces.

Vantaggi: Why PEEK Injection Molding Outperforms Alternatives

PEEK Injection Molding offers a unique set of advantages that make it irreplaceable in critical applications. Compared to metals (acciaio, alluminio) and other plastics (PA, PPS), PEEK delivers unmatched value:

Key Advantages of PEEK​

  • Extreme Temperature Resistance: PEEK maintains 90% of its strength at 240 ° C. (uso continuo) and can withstand short-term exposure to 300 ° C.. This outperforms aluminum (loses strength at 200 ° C.) e PPS (continuous use limit: 200 ° C.).
  • Chemical Inertness: Resistente agli oli, solventi, acidi, e basi (even concentrated sulfuric acid at room temperature). A differenza dei metalli, it won’t corrode—ideal for oil & gas and chemical processing parts.​
  • Steam & Radiation Sterilizable: Can undergo 1,000+ cicli di autoclave (134 ° C., 3 sbarra) and is resistant to gamma radiation (25 kGy). This makes it the top choice for reusable medical instruments.​
  • Superior Strength-to-Weight Ratio: PEEK has a density of 1.32 g/cm³ (50% più leggero dell'acciaio) but tensile strength comparable to aluminum. Per parti aerospaziali, this reduces fuel consumption by 5–10%.​
  • Resistenza all'usura: Carbon-filled PEEK has a wear rate 10x lower than nylon and 2x lower than bronze—perfect for bearings and sliding components that operate without lubrication.​
  • Low Outgassing: Emits minimal volatile organic compounds (COV) quando riscaldato. This meets NASA’s outgassing standards (ASTM E595), making it suitable for space applications.​
  • Biocompatibilità (USP Class VI): Implantable PEEK-OPTIMA is compatible with human tissue, causing no immune response. It’s used in spinal cages, tazze d'anca, and dental implants.​
  • Stabilità dimensionale: Basso coefficiente di espansione termica (Cte: 3.1–5.5 × 10⁻⁵/°C) and minimal shrinkage (1.5–2,5%) ensure parts retain their shape in temperature fluctuations.​

Metal Replacement: PEEK parts cost 20–30% more upfront than metal but last 3–5x longer (Nessuna corrosione, meno usura). Per esempio, a PEEK turbine bushing replaces a steel one, Tagliare i costi di manutenzione di 60%.

Industria delle applicazioni: Where PEEK Injection Molding Shines

PEEK Injection Molding serves industries that demand reliability in extreme conditions. Below’s how key sectors leverage PEEK’s properties to solve their toughest challenges:

IndustriaApplicazioni chiavePEEK Grade Used​Critical PEEK Property​
AerospazialeStaffe del motore, Isolamento del filo, cabin interior clips​Victrex 450G, Glass-filled PEEK​Resistenza ad alta temperatura (240 ° C.), Peso basso
MedicoImpianti spinali, dental healing caps, surgical forceps​PEEK-OPTIMA, Evonik Vestakeep MED​Biocompatibilità (Iso 10993), steam sterilizable​
Olio & GasDown-hole seals, componenti della valvola, drill bit parts​Carbon-filled PEEK (Ketaspire KT-820)Chemical inertness, Resistenza alla pressione (20 ksi)
SemiconduttoreWafer clamps, chamber liners, robot arms​Polished PEEK (Ra <0.1 µm)Low outgassing, contamination resistance​
AutomobileIngranaggi di trasmissione, componenti turbocompressori, Alloggi per sensoriBearing-grade PEEK (KT-220)Resistenza all'usura, high-heat tolerance​
ElettronicaHigh-temperature connectors, supporti circuiti, LED heatsinks​Ul 94 V-0 SbirciareResistenza alla fiamma, isolamento elettrico

​Aerospace is a standout example: PEEK engine brackets replace aluminum, cutting part weight by 40% and improving fuel efficiency—critical for airlines aiming to reduce carbon emissions. In medical, PEEK spinal cages integrate with bone tissue better than metal (no “stress shielding” that weakens surrounding bone), leading to faster patient recovery.​

Casi studio: Real-World Success with PEEK Injection Molding

Nostro PEEK Injection Molding services have solved complex challenges for clients across high-stakes industries. Below are detailed case studies highlighting measurable results—from weight savings to accelerated time-to-market:

Caso di studio 1: PEEK Turbine Bushing for Oil & Gas (60% Riduzione del peso)

  • Sfida: A global oilfield services company needed to replace steel turbine bushings in down-hole pumps. The steel parts were heavy (Aggiunta 15 lbs to each pump), corroded in saltwater (failing after 6 mesi), and required frequent lubrication—driving high maintenance costs.​
  • Soluzione: Abbiamo raccomandato sbirciata piena di carbonio (Solvay Ketaspire KT-820 CF30) for its wear resistance, inerzia chimica, e proprietà leggere. Nostro thick-section molding capability handled the bushing’s 20mm thickness, Mentre inert-gas venting eliminated voids (critical for withstanding down-hole pressure of 20 ksi). We also added a PVD tungsten carbide coating to boost wear resistance.​
  • Risultato: The PEEK bushings weighed 60% Meno dell'acciaio (3 lbs vs. 7.5 lbs per unit), reducing pump total weight by 12 libbre. They resisted saltwater corrosion and operated without lubrication, estendendo la vita di servizio a 3 anni (6x longer than steel). I costi di manutenzione sono diminuiti $250,000 annually per rig, delivering a 3:1 ROI In 8 mesi.
  • Testimonianza del cliente: “The PEEK bushings transformed our pump reliability. We’ve cut maintenance visits by 80%—a game-changer for remote offshore rigs.” — Oilfield Operations Director​

Caso di studio 2: Spinal Implant for Medical Device Maker (30-Day Launch)

  • Sfida: A medical device startup needed a spinal fusion cage for orthopedic trials. La parte richiesta implantable PEEK-OPTIMA (USP Class VI compliant), tolleranze strette (± 0,01 mm) for bone fit, and a porous surface for tissue integration. The startup had a strict 30-day timeline to meet FDA trial deadlines—far faster than the industry’s typical 8–10 week lead time for medical PEEK parts.​
  • Soluzione: We leveraged our 24-hour prototyping capability to create a 3D-printed PEEK prototype in 48 hours for fit testing. Per la produzione, we used our clean-room ISO 7 facility to avoid contamination, E chromic acid etching to create the porous surface (enhancing bone integration). Nostro lot traceability (FDA/UDI) system tracked every step—from PEEK-OPTIMA raw material batch to finished implant.​
  • Risultato: Abbiamo consegnato 50 implantable cages in 28 giorni (2 giorni prima del programma), meeting the startup’s trial deadline. The cages passed all biocompatibility tests (Iso 10993) and achieved 90% tissue integration in pre-clinical trials. The startup later scaled production to 500 units/month using our multi-cavity tools, cutting per-unit cost by 35%.​
  • ROI Analysis: The accelerated launch let the startup begin clinical trials 3 mesi prima, positioning them as a first-mover in the spinal implant market—projected to generate $2M in additional revenue in the first year.​

Caso di studio 3: High-Speed PEEK Gear for Automotive (15,000 RPM Durability)

  • Sfida: Un veicolo elettrico di lusso (EV) manufacturer needed a transmission gear that could withstand 15,000 giri al minuto (higher than traditional gas engines) without overheating or wearing out. Metal gears were too noisy and added weight (hurting EV range), while standard plastics (PA66) melted at the gear’s operating temperature (180 ° C.).
  • Soluzione: Abbiamo selezionato bearing-grade PEEK (Solvay Ketaspire KT-220) for its low friction coefficient (0.2) e stabilità termica (continuous use at 240 ° C.). Nostro mold-flow analysis optimized the gear’s tooth geometry to reduce shear stress during molding, Mentre annealing post-process relieved internal stresses (preventing warping at high RPM). Abbiamo anche usato laser texturing on gear teeth to improve lubricant retention.​
  • Risultato: The PEEK gear operated smoothly at 15,000 RPM per 1,000+ ore (equivalente a 100,000+ miles of driving) with no wear. It weighed 45% Meno del metallo, extending the EV’s range by 8 miglia per carica, e ridotto rumore di trasmissione da parte di 12 db (a key luxury feature). The manufacturer scaled to 10,000 gears/month using our multi-cavity tools, con a 99.9% defect rate.​

Caso di studio 4: Electronic Housing for Semiconductor (260 °C Solder Bath Resistance)

  • Sfida: A semiconductor equipment maker needed a housing for wafer-handling robots that could survive 260 °C solder bath exposure (during maintenance) and had ultra-low outgassing (to avoid contaminating wafers). Metal housings were too heavy and conducted heat (risking wafer damage), while PPS housings warped at 220 °C.​
  • Soluzione: Abbiamo usato general-purpose PEEK (Victrex 450G) for its thermal resistance and low outgassing (meets ASTM E595). Nostro lucidare (Ra <0.1 µm) process created a mirror-smooth surface that prevented particle buildup, E in-house mold-flow analysis designed the housing with thin, uniform walls (avoiding hot spots during molding). Abbiamo anche aggiunto un Rivestimento resistente ai raggi UV to protect against cleanroom lighting.​

Risultato: The PEEK housing survived 50+ solder bath cycles (260 ° C per 10 minuti) without warping or discoloration. Its low outgassing kept wafer defect rates below 0.01%—a critical requirement for advanced chip manufacturing. The client replaced all metal housings with PEEK, cutting robot weight by 30% and improving maneuverability.

Perché scegliere noi: Your Trusted PEEK Injection Molding Partner

PEEK Injection Molding demands specialized expertise—even small mistakes (PER ESEMPIO., insufficient drying, incorrect mold temperature) can ruin expensive PEEK material and delay critical projects. Here’s why clients in aerospace, medico, and industrial sectors choose our services:

1. Industry-Leading Certifications & Compliance​

Teniamo AS9100 (aerospaziale) E Iso 13485 (medico) certifications—rigorous standards that ensure consistency and compliance for high-stakes applications. Our cleanrooms (Iso 7) meet FDA requirements for medical implant production, e il nostro lot traceability (FDA/UDI) system satisfies aerospace and medical documentation needs. We also comply with ASTM D638 (mechanical testing) e iso 10993 (biocompatibilità), so you never have to worry about regulatory gaps.​

2. Specialized Expertise & Equipment​

  • 50+ PEEK Molds/Year: We design and build 50+ custom PEEK molds annually—more than most competitors—giving us deep experience in optimizing mold geometry for PEEK’s high viscosity and crystallization needs.​
  • 400 °C+ Machines: Our fleet of 15 injection molding machines is specially modified to reach 400 ° C+ (critical for melting PEEK) and maintain ±1 °C temperature precision—avoiding thermal degradation.​
  • In-House Rheology Lab: We test PEEK melt flow (Mfr) and viscosity before every production run, ensuring material consistency. This lab also lets us customize PEEK formulations (PER ESEMPIO., adding glass fibers for strength) for unique client needs.​

3. Velocità & Flessibilità

  • 24-Hour Prototyping: We use high-temperature 3D printing (Filamento di sbirciatina) to deliver functional prototypes in 24–48 hours—accelerating design validation and reducing time-to-market by 4–6 weeks.​
  • Rapid Tooling Change: Our tooling team can switch molds in under 4 ore (contro. 8–12 hours for competitors), making us ideal for clients with multiple part SKUs or small-batch runs.​
  • PPAP Level 3 Supporto: Per client automobilistici, we provide Production Part Approval Process (PPAP) Livello 3 documentation—including dimensional reports, Certificati materiali, and process capability studies (Cpk ≥ 1.33).

4. Global Supply Chain & Sostenibilità

  • Global PEEK Supply Contracts: We have long-term contracts with Victrex, Solvay, and Evonik—ensuring access to high-quality PEEK (even during material shortages) and consistent pricing for high-volume orders.​
  • Energy-Efficient Presses: Our molding machines use variable-frequency drives (Vfds) and heat-recovery systems, cutting energy consumption by 25% contro. standard machines. This reduces our carbon footprint and lowers costs for clients.​
  • Riduzione dei rifiuti: We reuse PEEK scrap (via regranulation) per parti non critiche (PER ESEMPIO., prototipi), keeping material waste below 5%—far better than the industry average of 10–15%.​

5. Long-Term Support & IP Protection​

  • Lifetime Tool Maintenance: We offer free annual maintenance for PEEK molds (pulizia, wear part replacement) to extend tool life to 500,000+ cicli (contro. 300,000 cycles without maintenance).
  • IP Protection Program: We sign non-disclosure agreements (IL) for all custom projects and restrict access to client designs to authorized team members only—critical for startups and companies with proprietary technology.​

24/7 Supporto tecnico: Our PEEK engineers are available 24/7 to troubleshoot issues (PER ESEMPIO., part warping, dimensional 偏差) and adjust processes—minimizing production downtime.

Domande frequenti

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